psychology glossary WORDS

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Our psychology glossary Words

1. Pavlovian Conditioning (Classical Conditioning) – Ivan Pavlov

Definition

Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an automatic response.

Key Concepts

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Response (CR)

Famous Experiment:

Pavlov’s Dogs – Dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell after repeated association with food.

Applications in Governance & Society:

Behavioral Training – Used in advertising, education, and policymaking.
Governance Example: Public awareness campaigns associate social behaviors with rewards or punishments (e.g., Swachh Bharat Mission uses visual conditioning).

How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define classical conditioning and its mechanisms.
  • Provide real-world applications in governance, psychology, and public behavior.

2. Positive Reinforcement – B.F. Skinne

Definition

Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior by adding a reward after the desired action.

Examples in Real Life:

 ✔ Parenting: Rewarding children with praise for good behavior.
Education: Giving students extra marks for participation.
Governance: Tax benefits for eco-friendly industries.

Case Study:

Aadhaar-Based Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT)Encourages financial inclusion by rewarding digital transactions with direct subsidies.

How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Explain Skinner’s reinforcement theory.
  • Provide governance applications (e.g., financial incentives, rewards in public policy).

3. Negative Reinforcement – B.F. Skinner

Definition

Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus.

Examples in Real Life:

Traffic Violations: Fine removal after good driving behavior.
Workplace Policies: Reducing workload for employees who meet performance targets.

Case Study:

 📌 Pollution Control Board Regulations – Companies that follow green policies are exempted from heavy environmental taxes.

How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Differentiate positive vs. negative reinforcement.
  • Use governance examples like pollution control incentives.

4. Gestalt Psychology – Max Wertheimer

Definition

Gestalt psychology focuses on how people perceive patterns and wholes rather than individual elements.

Key Concepts:

 ✔ Law of Similarity – Objects that look alike are grouped together.
Law of Proximity – Objects close together are perceived as a unit.
Law of Closure – The brain fills in missing information to create a whole.

Real-World Applications:

 ✔ Urban Planning: Smart city designs group amenities efficiently.
Policy Design: Citizens process well-structured schemes better than fragmented ones.

Case Study:

 📌 Traffic Signage in Metro Cities – Uses Gestalt principles for intuitive navigation.

How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Explain Gestalt principles and perception in decision-making.
  • Link to policy designs in urban governance.

5. Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud

Definition

Psychoanalysis explains human behavior through unconscious desires, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts.

Key Concepts:

 ✔ Id, Ego, Superego – Balancing primal urges, rational thought, and moral reasoning.
Defense Mechanisms – Psychological strategies like repression and denial.

Applications in Governance & Society:

 ✔ Mental Health Interventions – Used in counseling and rehabilitation programs.
Law & Crime Analysis: Helps in understanding criminal psychology.

Case Study:

📌 Juvenile Justice Board’s Psychological Approach – Uses psychoanalysis to assess criminal behavior in young offenders.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Explain Freud’s psychoanalysis in behavior and governance.
  • Provide case studies on rehabilitation and juvenile justice.

6. Neuroplasticity – The Brain’s Ability to Adapt

📌 Definition:

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to rewire itself and adapt to new experiences, learning, and recovery from injuries.

📌 Applications in Governance & Society:

Cognitive Training for Students: Memory enhancement through learning.
Stroke Recovery Programs: Helps patients regain lost brain functions.

📌 Case Study:

 📌 Skill India Initiative – Uses neuroplasticity-based learning techniques to upskill workers.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Explain how neuroplasticity helps learning and adaptation.
  • Provide case studies on education and health programs.

7. Self-Actualization – Abraham Maslow

Definition:

Self-actualization is the highest level of psychological development, where a person achieves their fullest potential.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

Physiological Needs – Food, water, shelter.
Safety Needs – Security, law enforcement.
Love & Belonging – Social relationships.
Esteem Needs – Respect, status.
Self-Actualization – Creativity, fulfillment.

Applications in Governance & Society:

 ✔ Education Policies: Aim to develop students beyond basic learning.
Workforce Training: Focuses on skill-building and personal growth.

Case Study:

Startup India Initiative – Encourages entrepreneurial growth and innovation, fulfilling self-actualization needs.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Explain Maslow’s theory and its impact on policymaking.
  • Use case studies on education and economic growth.

8. Cognitive Dissonance – Leon Festinger

Definition:

Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person experiences psychological discomfort due to conflicting beliefs or actions.

📌 Examples in Governance:

 ✔ Voter Decision-Making: Citizens justify supporting corrupt politicians despite ethical concerns.
Public Health Campaigns: Encouraging smokers to quit by highlighting contradictions between health risks and smoking habits.

Case Study:

Anti-Smoking Campaigns in India – Use cognitive dissonance to make people question smoking habits.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Explain cognitive dissonance and behavior modification.
  • Use policy examples like public health awareness.

Here’s the next detailed section covering the remaining psychology keywords with:
Definitions & Core Concepts
Real-World Applications
Case Studies & Examples
Relevance to UPSC & Answer-Writing Strategies

9. Transactional Analysis – Eric Berne

Definition:

Transactional Analysis (TA) is a psychological theory that studies how people interact based on three ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child.

Key Concepts:

Parent Ego State – Behaves like an authority figure (rules, discipline).
Adult Ego State – Uses logic and rational thinking.
Child Ego State – Reacts emotionally or impulsively.

Applications in Governance & Leadership:

 ✔ Helps civil servants develop effective communication and leadership.
✔ Useful in conflict resolution and team management.

Case Study:

Public Service Training Programs – Use TA techniques to improve bureaucratic communication.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define TA and its application in governance.
  • Use examples from leadership and negotiation skills.

10. Emotional Intelligence (EI) – Daniel Goleman

Definition:

EI is the ability to recognize, understand, and regulate emotions in oneself and others to make ethical decisions

Key Components:

Self-Awareness – Recognizing emotions.
Self-Regulation – Managing impulses.
Empathy – Understanding others’ emotions.
Social Skills – Effective leadership and teamwork.

Applications in Governance & Leadership:

 ✔ Helps bureaucrats manage stress and public grievances.
✔ Used in negotiation, conflict resolution, and policymaking.

Case Study:

A. P. J. Abdul Kalam’s Leadership – Demonstrated high EI in crisis management and national development.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define EI and its role in governance.
  • Provide examples of ethical leaders using EI.

11. Behavioral Therapy – B.F. Skinner & Albert Bandura

Definition:

Behavioral therapy focuses on modifying negative behaviors through reinforcement and conditioning techniques.

Key Methods:

 ✔ Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) – Changes negative thought patterns.
Exposure Therapy – Helps individuals confront fears gradually.

Applications in Governance & Public Health:

✔ Used in de-addiction centers and rehabilitation programs.
✔ Helps in mental health awareness and policy planning.

Case Study:

India’s Anti-Tobacco Campaign – Uses behavioral therapy to encourage smoking cessation.

How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define behavioral therapy and its techniques.
  • Provide case studies on public health and de-addiction programs.

12. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) & Psychometric Testing

Definition:

 IQ measures cognitive abilities like logical reasoning, memory, and problem-solving skills.

Applications in Education & Governance:

 ✔ Used in aptitude tests for recruitment (e.g., UPSC, CAT, GMAT, GRE).
✔ Helps in assessing cognitive development in students.

Case Study:

📌 UPSC CSAT (Civil Services Aptitude Test) – Uses IQ-based questions to evaluate candidates’ analytical skills.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define IQ and its measurement techniques.
  • Explain psychometric testing in education and recruitment.

13. Cognitive Load – John Sweller

Definition:

Cognitive load refers to the amount of mental effort required to process information.

Applications in Learning & Policy Implementation:

 ✔ Helps in designing better learning materials for students.
✔ Used in government training programs to enhance decision-making.

Case Study:

 📌 E-Governance Platforms – Reduce cognitive load by simplifying complex government procedures.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define cognitive load and its role in decision-making.
  • Provide examples from governance and education policies.

14. Attachment Theory – John Bowlby & Mary Ainsworth

Definition

Attachment Theory explains how early relationships with caregivers shape an individual’s emotional development.

Types of Attachment:

 ✔ Secure Attachment – Trusting relationships.
Insecure Attachment – Fear of abandonment.
Avoidant Attachment – Emotional detachment.

Applications in Social Policy & Mental Health:

 ✔ Used in child welfare programs and orphanage management.
✔ Helps in designing parental support policies.

Case Study:

 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) – Focuses on early childhood care and maternal support.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define Attachment Theory and its role in human development.
  • Provide case studies from child welfare policies.

15. Stress Management – Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Definition

Stress management techniques help reduce psychological strain and improve coping mechanisms.

Stages of Stress Response (GAS Model):

 ✔ Alarm Stage – Initial reaction to stress.
Resistance Stage – Adapting to stress.
Exhaustion Stage – Burnout due to prolonged stress.

Applications in Civil Services & Public Policy:

 ✔ Used in training programs to enhance bureaucratic efficiency.
✔ Helps in mental health interventions for civil servants.

Case Study:

📌 IAS Officers’ Training at LBSNAA – Includes stress management workshops for future administrators.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing

  • Define stress management and its psychological basis.
  • Provide examples of stress reduction in governance.

16. Forensic Psychology – Criminal Behavior Analysis

Definition:

Forensic psychology applies psychological principles to criminal investigations and legal processes.

Key Applications:

 ✔ Criminal Profiling – Understanding the mindset of criminals.
Witness Testimonies – Assessing the reliability of statements.

Case Study:

📌 Nirbhaya Case Investigation – Used forensic psychology to analyze criminal behavior.

✅ How to Use in UPSC Answer Writing?

  • Define forensic psychology and its applications in law enforcement.
  • Provide case studies from major criminal investigations.