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GEOGRAPHY

Climate change

Context

• India CEO Forum on Climate Change organized by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), as the pioneering initiative of the government, inviting industry representatives, exchanged views on climate change issues and discussed opportunities to collaborate in regard to fulfilling India’s national as well as international climate change commitments.

 What is the Climate?

• Climate is the average weather in a place over many years.
• The climate system is comprised of five interacting parts, the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), cryosphere (ice and permafrost), biosphere (living things), and lithosphere (earth’s crust and upper mantle).
• The weather can change in just a few hours whereas climate takes millions of years to change.
• Planet earth has witnessed many variations in climate since the beginning.

What is Climate Change?

• Climate change occurs when changes in Earth’s climate system result in new weather patterns that last for at least a few decades, and maybe for millions of years.
• The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun, with a relatively tiny amount from earth’s interior.
• The climate system also gives off energy to outer space.
• The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth’s energy budget.
• When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth’s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.
• As this energy moves through Earth’s climate system, it creates Earth’s weather and long-term averages of weather are called “climate”.
• Changes in the long term average are called “climate change”.

What are the evidences of Climate Change?

1. Sea level rise
2. Global temperature rise
3. Warming oceans
4. Shrinking ice sheets
5. Declining Arctic sea ice
6. Glacial retreat
7. Extreme natural events
8. Ocean acidification
9. Decreased snow cover

What are the causes of Climate Change?

The Earth’s climate can be affected by number Natural and Man-made factors. The prominent factors are-

Natural Factors

 Continental drift

• The continents in present form were not alike before 200 million years.
• This drift had impacted the climate by changing the physical features of the landmass,their position and the position of water bodies,such as changed the flow of ocean currents and winds, whichaffected the climate.
• The drift process is still continued today, the Himalaya is rising by about 1 mm every year because the Indian plate is moving towards the Eurasian plate, slowly but steadily.

Plate tectonics

• The motion of tectonic plates, in the course of millions of years, reconfigures global land and ocean areas and generates topography.
• This has affected both global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere-ocean circulation.
• The position of the continents influences patterns of ocean circulation as it determines the geometry of the oceans.
• The locations of the seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe, and therefore, in determining global climate.

Orbital variations of earth

• Slight variations in Earth’s motion lead to changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface and how it is distributed across the globe.
• There are three types of kinematic change-

1. variations in Earth’s eccentricity,
2. changes in the tilt angle of Earth’s axis of rotation,
3. Precession of Earth’s axis.

• These changes produce Milankovitch cycles which affect climate and are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods.

Volcanism

• The eruption of volcanoes results in the outburst of gases and dust particles which partially block the incoming rays of the Sun and that lead to the cooling of the weather.

• The volcanic eruptions injected Sulphur dioxide as well as other gases and substancesin the Earth’s climate.
• Over very long (geological) time periods, volcanoes release carbon dioxide from the Earth’s crust and mantle, counteracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other geological carbon dioxide sinks.
• Although the volcanic activity may last only a few days yet the large volumes of gases and ash can influence the climatic pattern over the several years.

Ocean currents

• Ocean currents are the major component of the climatic system which is driven by the horizontal wind forces causing the displacement of the water against the sea surface.

Global ocean currents. Oceans store a large amount of heat, so that small changes in ocean currents can have a large effect on coastal and global climate.

• Due to temperature variation of the water, the climate of the region is largely influenced.
• On longer time scales, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat by carrying out a very slow and extremely deep movement deep of water, and the long term redistribution of heat in the world’s ocean.
• The oceanic variability includes the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation.
• These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmosphere of the earth.

Anthropogenic (Man-Made) Factors

• It involves the changes in the energy balance of the Earth – atmosphere system leading to changes in weather and climate.
• Cause of anthropogenic (Man-Made) climate change includes greenhouse gases and pattern of land use changes.

Greenhouse Gases

• The composition of the atmosphere to a large extent controls our climate.
• As the human activity has increased due to onset of industrial revolution, the emission of huge amount of Green House Gases is also increased which led to more absorption of heat being retained in the atmosphere thus an increase in global Temperature.
• The Greenhouse gases while largely transparent to incoming solar radiation, absorbs most of the infrared emitted by the earth’s surface.
• The main greenhouse gases and how they are responsible for Climate Change?

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• CO2 is the greenhouse gas most commonly produced by human activities and it is responsible for 64% of man-made global warming.
• Its concentration in the atmosphere is currently 40% higher than it was when industrialisation began.
• Naturally CO2 is released into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions and animal respiration.
• It is released through human activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels for energy.

• Deforestation contributes to global warming as fewer plants are available to take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Methane (CH4)

• Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills.
• It is a stronger GHG than CO2 because it can absorb more heat. However it is much less abundant in the atmosphere.

Water vapour

• It is the most abundant greenhouse gas (GHG), however it spends just a short time in the atmosphere. The amount of water vapour varies drastically with time, region and altitude.

 Nitrous oxide (N2O)

• Nitrous oxide is considered as a very powerful greenhouse gas which is abundantly emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of wastewater.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

• The production of CFCs began in the 1930s. Since then they have been extensively utilised as propellants in aerosols, as blowing agents in foam manufacture and in air conditioning.
• There are no removal processes or sinks for CFCs in the lowest part of the atmosphere called the troposphere.
• They are transported up into the stratosphere where they are broken down by ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun, releasing free chlorine atoms which cause significant ozone depletion.
• CFCs do contribute significantly to the enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect, because they are very good at trapping heat.

Effect of Climate change on Land use

• Land use and land use changes can significantly contribute to overall climate change.
• Vegetation and soils typically act as a carbon sink, storing carbon dioxide that is absorbed through photosynthesis.
• When the land is disturbed, the stored carbon dioxide-along with methane and nitrous oxide-is emitted, re-entering the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming.
• Cutting down forests to create farmland led to changes in the amount of sunlight reflected from the ground back into space (the surface albedo). The increased albedohas a cooling effect.
• High Latitudes region is largely affected due to deforestation as the albedo of snow-covered land, previously forested, has increased.
• Tropical deforestation which changes evapotranspiration rates (the amount of water vapour put into the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration from trees), desertification, which increases surface albedo, and the general effects of agriculture on soil moisture characteristics.

 Impacts of Climate Change

Higher Temperatures

• Green House gases release by power plants, automobiles, deforestation and other sources are heating up the planet.
• An increased temperature causes an increase in heat-related deaths and illness, rising seas, increased storm intensity, and many of the other dangerous consequences of climate change.
• During the 20th century, the Earth’s average temperature has increased by one degree Fahrenheit to its highest level in the past four centuries – believed to be the fastest rise in a thousand years.
• Researchers suggest that if emissions of heat-trapping carbon emissions aren’t reduced, average surface temperatures could increase by 3 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century.

Rising Seas level

• As the Earth heats up, sea levels rise up because warmer water takes up more area than colder water, a process known as thermal expansion.
• Melting glaciers compound the problem by dumping even more fresh water into the oceans.
• Rising seas threaten the populated low-lying areas, islands and dense coastal populations, erode shorelines, damage property and destroy ecosystems such as mangroves and wetlands that protect coasts against storms.

Effects on Wildlife/Ecosystem

• According to the experts, one-fourth of Earth’s species will be headed for extinction by 2050 if the global warming trend continues at its current rate.
• Increased temperatures are causing the changes in weather and vegetation patterns across the globe, forcing animal species to migrate to new areas.

Increased Risk of Drought and Floods

• As temperatures rise globally, droughts will become more frequent and more severe, with potentially devastating consequences for agriculture, water supply and human health.
• Higher temperatures increase the amount of moisture that evaporates from land and water, leading to drought in many areas.
• Higher temperature melts the glaciers which eventually results in floods and rising sea level. Lands affected by drought are more vulnerable to flooding once rain falls.
• Hot temperatures and dry conditions also increase the likelihood of forest fires.

Affect on Landscapes

• The changing patterns of rain and increasing temperature have resulted in moving of the vegetation around the globe.
• The vegetation shifts will affect the lives of vulnerable communities and wild life.
• Increased temperature and irregular rain causes the expansion of deserts.
• Some species and communities such as polar bears and alpine meadows may be left without any remaining viable habitat, putting much of our treasured wildlife at risk.

Increased Storm frequencies

• Scientific research indicates that climate change will cause hurricanes and tropical storms to become more intense — lasting longer, unleashing stronger winds, and causing more damage to coastal ecosystems and communities.
• Climate change also causes rising sea levels, disappearing wetlands, and increased coastal development threaten to intensify the damage caused by hurricanes and tropical storms.

 Effect on Health Issues

• Climate change increases the spread of infectious diseases, because in warmer temperatures it allows disease-carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive.
• With temperature increase, the risk of heat-related illness and even death for the most vulnerable human population is also increases.
• Scientists have linked the deadly heat waves to climate change and warn of more to come.
• Diseases and pests that were once limited to the tropics — such as mosquitoes that carry malaria — may find hospitable conditions in new areas that were once too cold to support them.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that climate change may have caused more than 150,000 deaths in the year 2000 alone, with an increase in deaths likely in the future.

Food Security

• Climate change is projected to have significant impacts on agricultural conditions, food supply, and food security.
• Some of these effects are biophysical, ecological, and economic. These include-

1. A shift in climate and agricultural zones towards the poles
2. Changes in production patterns due to higher temperatures
3. A boost in agricultural productivity due to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere o Changing precipitation patterns
4. Increased vulnerability of the landless and the poor

• Solar radiation, temperature, and precipitation are the essential drivers of crop growth. Therefore agriculture has always been highly dependent on climate patterns and variations.

International agreements and initiatives to combat Climate Change

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

• IPCC was founded in November 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) jointly as a place to study global warming problems at governmental level.
• It is the mechanism that accumulates scientific knowledge on global warming while debates on the international countermeasures have been made in the COPs (Conference of the Parties) of UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These two mechanisms are complementing each other.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• The UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. The 195 countries that have ratified the Convention are called Parties to the Convention (Almost universal Membership).
• The UNFCCC is a “Rio Convention”, one of three adopted at the “Rio Earth Summit” in 1992. Others are the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification.
• Due to intrinsic linkages, the Joint Liaison Group was set up to boost cooperation among the three Conventions, and synergies in their activities on issues of mutual concern. It now also incorporates theRamsar Convention on Wetlands.
• Following its effectuation, the COP1 was held in Berlin, COP2 in Geneva, and the COP3 was held in Kyoto to adopt “Kyoto Protocol“.
• Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to ‘a level that would prevent dangerousanthropogenic interference with the climate system’.

Paris Climate Agreement 2015

• The Paris] is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance, signed in 2016.
• The Paris Agreement’s long-term goal is to keep the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels; and to limit the increase to 1.5 °C, since this would substantially reduce the risks and effects of climate change.

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)

• The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) in Developing Countries was launched in 2008.
• REDD is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation.
• Its original objective is to reduce greenhouse gases but it is claimed that it can deliver “co-benefits” such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation
• REDD is sometimes presented as an “offset” scheme of the carbon markets and thus, would produce carbon credits.

REDD +

• “REDD+” goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation, and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
• To achieve these multiple benefits, REDD+ will require the full engagement and respect for the rights of Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent communities.

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Major initiatives of the Government towards combating climate change

• National action plan on climate change (NAPCC)
• Government of India has launched eight Missions as part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in specific areas which include assessment of the impact of climate change and actions needed to address climate change.

1. National Solar Mission

• The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of solar energy for power generation and other uses with the ultimate objective of making solar competitive with fossil-based energy options.
• The plan includes specific goals for increasing use of solar thermal technologies in urban areas, industry, and commercial establishments.
• Other objectives include the establishment of a solar research centre, increased international collaboration on technology development, strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity, and increased government funding and international support.

2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

• Initiatives based on increasing the energy use efficiency were expected to yield savings of 10,000 MW by 2012.
• Building on the Energy Conservation Act 2001, the plan recommends-

1. Mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-savings certificates.
2. Energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances
3. Financing for public-private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings and agricultural sectors.

3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat

• To promote energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning.
• the plan calls for-

1. Extending the existing Energy Conservation Building
2. A greater emphasis on urban waste management and recycling, including power production from waste
3. Strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards and using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles
4. Incentives for the use of public transportation.
5. National Water Mission

• With water scarcity projected to worsen as a result of climate change, the plan sets a goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other measures.

5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

• The plan aims to conserve biodiversity, forest cover, and other ecological values in the Himalayan region, where glaciers that are a major source of India’s water supply are projected to recede as a result of global warming.

6. National Mission for a “Green India”

• Goals include the afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and expanding forest cover from 23% to 33% of India’s territory.

7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

• The plan aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices.

8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

• To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and increased international collaboration.
• It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture capital funds.

International Solar Alliance (ISA)

• International Solar Alliance was jointly launched by India and France in Paris on the side-lines of CoP 21 in 2015.
• The vision and mission of the alliance is to provide a dedicated platform for cooperation among solar resource rich countries that lie completely or partial between the Tropics of Capricorn & Cancer.

State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC)

• State governments have drafted climate strategies aligned with the eight National Missions under the NAPCC. The strategies focus on issues ranging from climate mitigation, energy efficiency, and resource conservation to climate adaptation.

Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric vehicles (FAME) Scheme for E-mobility

• Union Government in April 2015 launched FAME – India Scheme with an aim to boost sales of eco-friendly vehicles in the country. It is a part of the National Mission for Electric Mobility.

National Action Programme to Combat Desertification

• India is a party to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and MoEF is the National Coordinating Agency for the implementation of the UNCCD in the country.
• As an affected party, a 20 year comprehensive National Action Programme (NAP) to combat desertification in the country has been prepared.
• The objectives are:-

1. community based approach to development, o activities to improve the quality of life of the local communities,
2. awareness raising
3. drought management preparedness and mitigation
4. R&D initiatives and interventions which are locally suited,
5. strengthening self-governance leading to empowerment of local communities

• It is proposed to initiate activities that include, among others, assessment and mapping of land degradation, drought monitoring and early warning system groups, drought preparedness contingency plans, and on-farm research activities for development of indigenous technology etc. will be taken up.

PradhanMantriUjjwalaYojana (PMUY)

• A large chunk of poplation still use biomass such as firewood and cow dung for cooking causing hazardous pollution damaging the health of the household members and the environment.
• Government plans to provide free LPG connections to 5 Cr BPL households to reduce their dependence on the polluting cooking fuel. 

Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), 2017

• Developed by Power Ministry and BEE, ECBC seeks to promote low carbon growth by integrating the renewable energy sources in the design of the buildings.
• For a building to be ECBC compliant it has to show at least 25% savings in the energy consumption.
• It is estimated that adoption of ECBC throughout the country would reduce at least 50% of the energy use by 2030.

 Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA)

• It evaluates the environmental performance of a building holistically over its entire life cycle, thereby providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a green building.
• GRIHA, developed by TERI has been adopted by government as the national rating system for the green building.

 UnnatJyoti by Affordable Lighting for All (UJALA)

• To promote efficient lighting, enhance awareness on using efficient equipment which reduce electricity bills and help preserve environment.

 Way Forward

• Wealthy nations like the U.S., and those of the EU argued that emissions from developing countries are consistently rising and they need to commit to more serious emission cuts.
• The immediate up scaling of ambition in the second Commitment period of Kyoto Protocol and its early ratification by all Kyoto Protocol parties would be a step in the right direction.
• The ‘developing versus developed country’ schism needs to be diluted at the earliest and Developed Countries should avoid watering down the CBDR principle envisaged in earlier agreements.

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